Image of man in protective suit and mask disinfecting warehouse full of food products

COVID-19

COVID-19 brought change to many aspects of our working and family lives and, likewise, all of Eurofound’s research areas have been marked by COVID-19. The Agency rolled out several rounds of the now landmark Living and Working in the EU online survey to analyse the rapid change that ensued after the outbreak of the pandemic. Simultaneously, the analyses in existing surveys and other research have specifically looked at the impacts of the pandemic across the board.

The long-term impacts of the pandemic on life and the world of work continues to be a part of upcoming research, looking at labour market change, how digitisation has changed the workplace, how COVID-19 has impacted business continuity and how crises impact equality and cohesion in Europe.
 

Topic

Recent updates

Eurofound research

Eurofound’s work on COVID-19 examines the far-reaching socioeconomic implications of the pandemic across Europe and their impact on living and working conditions. Drawing on its Network of Eurofound Correspondents, while also adapting the focus of its in-house resources, Eurofound monitors the critical changes the crisis has brought to the labour market, working conditions and quality of life across the EU and aims to map how different Member States have responded to the challenges that have emerged. In response to COVID-19, Eurofound adjusted its research to:

  • collect data regarding the impact of this unprecedented situation on the lives of Europeans via its unique online survey launched in April 2020, as well as monitor measures taken by policy actors to combat the effects of the pandemic on employment, working conditions and living conditions
  • provide an analysis of specific topics, such as employment effects, effects on specific sectors, effectiveness of specific measures (for example, short-time work schemes).

Explore more:

Other relevant resources

Data: Living and Working in the EU e-survey

Restructuring events database: impact of COVID-19 on the employment effects of large-scale restructuring events in Europe

European Jobs Monitor: the changing employment structure in Europe in view of the crisis

EU PolicyWatch: database on the responses of government and social partners to the crisis, based on research from the Network of Eurofound Correspondents

Restructuring support instruments - EU PolicyWatch: recording measures which support companies that are restructuring, as well as the employees affected, highlighting when a case is relevant to COVID-19

Platform economy initiatives - COVID-19: how the crisis impacts platform work and platform workers 

Infographic: Living, working and COVID-19

Covering rounds 1 to 3 of the e-survey

10% of respondents who had been employed before the pandemic were unemployed in spring 2021.

Two-thirds of those employees who have teleworked partially or exclusively during COVID-19 would prefer a regular hybrid working arrangement if there are no restrictions in place.

See full infographic

Key outputs

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Living, working and COVID-19

This report presents the findings of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey, carried out by Eurofound to capture the far-reaching implications of the pandemic for the way people live and...

28 Meán Fómhair 2020
Publication
Research report
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COVID-19: Implications for employment and working life

Disclaimer - Please note that this report was updated with revised data (specifically for Bulgaria) on 23 March 2021.This report sets out to assess the initial impact of the COVID-19...

11 Márta 2021
Publication
Research report

EU context

Since 2020, national and EU authorities have launched a range of support measures to respond to the impact of the COVID-19 crisis, which has affected the regular life and work of people in the EU. Specific sectors, many self-employed people and SMEs have been particularly affected by the fallout of the pandemic. 

While the EU does not have direct legislative power over health matters (this being the responsibility of individual Member States), the response of the EU – and particularly the European Commission – has focused on stabilising the EU economy, putting in place border control measures, reinforcing our public health sectors, securing the production of vaccines for citizens, as well as supporting various business sectors. 

On 10 February 2021, the Commission welcomed the European Parliament’s approval of the €672.5 billion Recovery and Resilience Facility available to EU Member States to support reforms and investments under NextGenerationEU, the temporary instrument designed to boost recovery and help Europe emerge stronger from the crisis. The Facility runs until end of December 2026 and is closely linked with the Commission priorities for a greener, more digital and more resilient Europe.

 

European Industrial Relations Dictionary 

Eurofound expert(s)

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Eszter Sándor

Eszter Sandor is a senior research manager in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. She has expertise in survey methodology and statistical analysis, has worked on the preparation...

Senior research manager,
Social policies research unit
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Daphne Ahrendt

Daphne Ahrendt is a senior research manager in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. Since joining Eurofound in 2013, her work has covered a broad range of social policy areas. At...

Senior research manager,
Social policies research unit
Publications results (46)

Weathering the crisis: How job retention schemes preserved employment and incomes during the pandemic

This report describes the implementation and changing features of job retention schemes in the EU between 2020 and 2022. In response to the COVID-19 health emergency, EU governments swiftly deployed job retention schemes to preserve employment, support businesses and maintain individual incomes.

23 September 2024
Publication
Research report
Employment and labour markets
Employment status
Labour market policies
Pay and income
COVID-19

Regional employment change and the geography of telework in Europe

The fast and steady recovery in employment following the COVID-19 pandemic in the EU benefited from proactive policy responses to the crisis and from resilient labour markets. Almost 90% of regions across the EU had exceeded their pre-pandemic employment levels by 2022; however, significant regional

03 September 2024
Publication
Research report
Employment and labour markets
Employment structure
Digitalisation
Teleworking
COVID-19

Developments in income inequality and the middle class in the EU

This report examines trends in income inequality in the EU and explores whether the middle class is becoming smaller due to disparities in household disposable income.

12 July 2024
Publication
Research report
Pay and income
Promoting social cohesion and convergence
COVID-19
Inequality

The political dimension of social cohesion in Europe

This report investigates the political dimensions of social cohesion in Europe, offering a 20-year perspective derived from 10 rounds of the European Social Survey. It scrutinises trends and regional variations in political participation, examining correlations with levels of institutional distrust

26 April 2024
Publication
Research report
Promoting social cohesion and convergence
Trust
Quality of society
COVID-19

The changing structure of employment in the EU: Annual review 2023

Employment levels in the EU27 recovered from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020–2021 much faster than they did after the global financial crisis in 2008–2010. This was despite the immediate job loss effects of the two crises being of comparable scale. Demographic change is affecting labour

28 March 2024
Publication
Eurofound research paper
Employment and labour markets
Employment structure
Digitalisation
COVID-19
Gender equality

Intergenerational inequalities: How to close the gaps?

The various economic and social shocks of the past decade and a half – most recently the COVID-19 pandemic – have ongoing consequences for the living standards and prospects of Europeans, and sometimes these outcomes have been uneven across age groups. Social policies – such as those in the areas of

19 December 2023
Publication
Policy brief
Social policies
Youth
Health and well-being
Labour market participation
Living conditions and quality of life
Ageing workforce
Living conditions
COVID-19
Retirement

Psychosocial risks to workers' well-being: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic

Using data from the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey 2021 and building on a theoretical model that differentiates between job stressors and job resources, this report examines key psychosocial risks in the workplace and their impact on health.

23 November 2023
Publication
Research report
Psychosocial risks
Working conditions and sustainable work
Health and well-being
Teleworking
COVID-19
Working time
Discrimination at work

Job quality of COVID-19 pandemic essential workers

During the COVID-19 pandemic, a diverse collection of workers ensured the functioning of our societies. In a time of crisis, they maintained access to healthcare, long-term care and other essential goods and services, including food, water, electricity, the internet and waste treatment.

10 October 2023
Publication
Policy brief
Working conditions and sustainable work
Working conditions
Job quality
COVID-19
Front cover for Eurofound's publication entitled 'Social services in Europe: Adapting to a new reality'

Social services in Europe: Adapting to a new reality

This report addresses the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on social services in the EU. While the pandemic negatively affected social services, it nevertheless provided lessons on how to adapt them in response to new challenges and social risks. One lesson, for instance, is that policies should be dev

16 August 2023
Publication
Research report
Social policies
Public services
Care
COVID-19
Digitalisation
Living conditions and quality of life

Measures to tackle labour shortages: Lessons for future policy

As economies begin to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, labour shortages are becoming increasingly evident despite the impact of the war in Ukraine on energy and commodity prices. These include shortages exacerbated by the crisis in some sectors and professions where they had been endemic for some

28 March 2023
Publication
Research report
Skills and training
Unemployment
Employment structure
European Green Deal
Employment and labour markets
COVID-19
Digitalisation
Labour market policies
Just transition
Online resources results (23)
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Building resilience after COVID-19: EU measures to protect jobs and promote skills

Since 2011, the Restructuring support instruments database of the EU PolicyWatch has been collecting information on measures that assist companies and workers to anticipate and manage restructuring. This article looks at measures in the database aimed at supporting employees and employers during the

21 Feabhra 2023
Article
Skills and training
Restructuring
Social protection
Employment and labour markets
COVID-19

Eurofound presentation to the European Parliament Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL)

Eurofound presentation to the European Parliament Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL), Ivailo Kalfin, Executive Director, Eurofound, 24 January 2023.

23 Eanáir 2023
Presentation
Skills and training
Stand with Ukraine
Working conditions and sustainable work
European Pillar of Social Rights
Care
COVID-19

The rise in cost of living and energy poverty: Social impact and policy responses

The rise in cost of living and energy poverty: Social impact and policy responses. 14 October 2022, Informal Meeting of Employment and Social Affairs Ministers (EPSCO). Presentation by Ivailo Kalfin, Executive Director, Eurofound.

14 Deireadh Fómhair 2022
Presentation
Pay and income
Working conditions and sustainable work
Working conditions
European Green Deal
COVID-19
Living conditions
Living conditions and quality of life
Just transition
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COVID-19 in the workplace: Employer’s responsibility to ensure a safe workplace

Throughout 2021, the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic, specific occupational health and safety rules were reintroduced due to increases in infection rates. Mandatory face masks, physical distancing and hygiene measures were enforced, and the recommendation to telework was largely re-instated in

16 Meitheamh 2022
Article
Social partners
Working conditions and sustainable work
Teleworking
COVID-19
Industrial relations and social dialogue
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Collective bargaining and social dialogue – Back to normal in 2021?

Two years after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, social dialogue continues to make a significant contribution to helping economies recover. Managing the crisis led many governments to rely on tripartite social dialogue to develop the policies that would mitigate the negative impact of the

16 Meitheamh 2022
Article
Social partners
Minimum wage
Agreements
Collective bargaining
COVID-19
Labour and social regulation
Industrial relations and social dialogue
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Back to work after COVID-19: Testing, vaccines and green certificates

In the second pandemic year 2021, access to one’s place of work was increasingly dependent on providing proof of either having been tested, vaccinated or recovered from COVID-19 in several countries. Specific professional groups – such as essential workers and workers in critical infrastructure –

16 Meitheamh 2022
Article
Social partners
COVID-19
Labour and social regulation
Industrial relations and social dialogue
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Episode 4 – Gender equality

This podcast, launched on International Women’s Day this year in conjunction with the European Institute for Gender Equality, debates issues related to closing the gender gaps across pay, employment and caring, and explores innovative options to promote change.

7 Márta 2022
Podcast
Gender equality
COVID-19
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Episode 3 – The impact of COVID-19 on young people in the EU

New day, new data highlighting the devastating impact of COVID-19 on young people across the European Union – most recently Eurofound’s unique pan-European Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey. We know this has taken an unprecedented toll on young people particularly – their mental well-being, thei

16 Nollaig 2021
Podcast
Youth
COVID-19

Towards a strong Social Europe in the aftermath of the COVID-19 crisis: reducing disparities and addressing distributional impacts

21 Deireadh Fómhair 2021
Presentation
Living and working in Europe
Psychosocial risks
Teleworking
Work-life balance
European Pillar of Social Rights
COVID-19
Female teleworker taking notes during video conference on her laptop

Workers want to telework but long working hours, isolation and inadequate equipment must be tackled

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a surge in telework, with dramatic increases in the number of employees working from home (teleworking) in many European countries. What for many employees started out as a mandatory move seems to have transformed into a preference among the majority for part-time or

6 Meán Fómhair 2021
Article
Working time
Working conditions and sustainable work
Working conditions
Teleworking
Work-life balance
European Pillar of Social Rights
Gender equality
COVID-19
Blogs results (35)
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Tentative growth in trust shows COVID-19 has not yet torn the social fabric of Europe

As Europe faces into what appears to be a second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, concern is mounting about the evolution and dramatic impact of the disease, with rising numbers of infections, hospitalisations and deaths. There is also a growing focus on the repercussions for the economy, the labour m

7 Deireadh Fómhair 2020
Juan Menéndez-Valdés
Blog
COVID-19
Trust
Living conditions and quality of life
Working conditions
Teleworking
Labour market participation
Working conditions and sustainable work
Image of woman teleworking

How to use the surge in teleworking as a real chance to include people with disabilities

COVID-19 unleashed the pent-up potential for telework. Over a third of respondents to Eurofound’s online survey of Europeans in April had started teleworking because of the pandemic. Never before had so many people been working from home. For people with disabilities, telework has long been viewed a

17 Lúnasa 2020
Daphne Ahrendt
Blog
COVID-19
Inclusive labour markets
Disability and chronic disease
Teleworking
Employment and labour markets
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Minimum wages in 2020: Will COVID-19 derail the quest for fair pay?

Minimum wages, one of the cornerstone issues for Ursula von der Leyen’s Commission, were a hot topic in the EU at the beginning of the year. Then the COVID-19 public health crisis struck. Now, with an economic crisis and recession looming, the question is not only what impact the crisis has had on m

7 Iúil 2020
Anna Gallinat
Blog
COVID-19
Minimum wage
Employment and labour markets
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COVID-19 unleashed the potential for telework – How are workers coping?

The COVID-19 health crisis prompted governments to take the unprecedented step of shutting down all workplaces, apart from those providing essential goods and services, to control the spread of the virus. Every worker who was able to do so began to work from home, initiating a social experiment of a

9 Meitheamh 2020
Oscar Vargas Llave
Blog
COVID-19
Work-life balance
Teleworking
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COVID-19 fallout takes a higher toll on women, economically and domestically

​​​​​​​While women appear to be more resilient than men to COVID-19 in terms of health outcomes, that is not the case when it comes to the economic and social fallout. Measures taken by governments to control the spread of the virus are exacerbating gender divides in unemployment, domestic labour an

3 Meitheamh 2020
Massimiliano Mascherini
Blog
COVID-19
Psychosocial risks
Living conditions and quality of life
Unemployment
Work-life balance
Gender equality
Teleworking
image_blog_covid_youth_18052020.png

Is history repeating itself? The impact of the COVID-19 crisis on youth

While we now know that the idea that ‘COVID-19 only affects older people’ is fake news, the first weeks of the pandemic have shown that young people are in general more resilient than older people to the disease. But are they also more resilient to its social and economic impacts?

18 Bealtaine 2020
Massimiliano Mascherini
Blog
COVID-19
Trust
Living conditions and quality of life
Youth
Subjective well-being
Unemployment
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Trust tensions highlight need for Europe to ensure a coordinated response to COVID-19

The impact of COVID-19 continues to create chaos in people’s lives across Europe and the world. The economy is heading towards another major dip, and a sense of general insecurity pervades. The daunting challenges confronting health services and projections on the long-term impact of the crisis domi

12 Bealtaine 2020
Juan Menéndez-Valdés
Blog
COVID-19
Trust
Living conditions and quality of life
Youth
Subjective well-being
Unemployment
Work-life balance
Teleworking
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All aboard: Hauling undeclared workers onto the pandemic rescue boats

A debate has started in Italy about the support that the state should provide to undeclared workers operating in the informal economy during the COVID-19 crisis. Nunzia Catalfo, Italy’s Minister of Labour in April stated that ‘undeclared work should not exist’ but went on to acknowledge ‘it is a pla

11 Bealtaine 2020
Isabella Biletta
Blog
Social protection
Undeclared work
Employment status
COVID-19
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Can short-time working save jobs during the COVID-19 crisis?

On 2 April, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen announced a new fund of up to €100 billion to support EU Member States to introduce short-time working or similar schemes, including for the self-employed, in an effort to safeguard jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Known as SURE (Suppo

5 Bealtaine 2020
Tina Weber
Blog
COVID-19
Labour market policies
Labour and social regulation
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Economic downturns expose the vulnerability of a growing number of precarious workers

Up to the start of 2020, recent EU economic and labour market trends were often discussed in terms of the periods before and after the Great Recession. It now appears likely that, in the short- to medium-term, the repercussions of that economic crisis will be dwarfed by the unfolding impact of the C

21 Aibreán 2020
Tina Weber
Blog
COVID-19
Non-standard employment
Employment status
Labour and social regulation
Employment and labour markets
Data results (30)

Housing security - COVIDR3

17 Samhain 2023
Source:
Living, working and COVID-19 – 3rd round March 2021
Reference period:
2021

Housing security - COVIDR5

17 Samhain 2023
Source:
Living, working and COVID-19 – 5th round May 2022
Reference period:
2022

Housing security - COVIDR1

17 Samhain 2023
Source:
Living, working and COVID-19 – 1st round April 2020
Reference period:
2020

Housing security - COVIDR2

17 Samhain 2023
Source:
Living, working and COVID-19 – 2nd round July 2020
Reference period:
2020

Living and Working in the EU e-survey

7 Samhain 2023
Reference period:
2022

Trust in national government by ability to make ends meet (scale 1–10)

7 Iúil 2022

Trust in national government by employment status (scale 1–10)

7 Iúil 2022

Trust in the EU by ability to make ends meet and e-survey round (scale 1–10)

7 Iúil 2022

Trust in institutions – spring 2021 questions – mean scores (scale 1–10), EU27

7 Iúil 2022

Trust in the EU by country and e-survey round – mean scores (scale 1–10), EU27

7 Iúil 2022

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