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Non-standard employment

Non-standard employment is an umbrella term for different employment arrangements that deviate from standard employment. They include temporary employment; part-time and on-call work; temporary agency work and other multiparty employment relationships; as well as disguised employment and dependent self-employment. The most relevant of possible future developments of non-standard work, whatever their contractual form, are related to digitalisation.

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Recent updates

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Workers on non-permanent contracts and workers with no formal contract are less satisfied with the functioning of democracy in their country, as are workers experiencing job insecurity. They are less...

1 september 2023
Corporate news

Eurofound expert(s)

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Carlos Vacas Soriano is a senior research manager in the Employment unit at Eurofound. He works on topics related to wage and income inequalities, minimum wages, low pay, job...

Senior research manager,
Employment research unit
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Dragoș Adăscăliței is a research officer in the Employment unit at Eurofound. His current research focuses on topics related to the future of work, including the impact of...

Research officer,
Employment research unit
Publications results (55)

An increasing number of European workers have part-time jobs or non-standard types of work, such as the zero-hours employment contracts that have become common in the UK. Yet most European workers with temporary contracts would like permanent jobs, and one third of people working part time would

14 April 2015

Across Europe, new forms of employment are emerging that are different from traditional standard or non-standard employment in a number of ways. Some transform the relationship between employer and employee, some change work organisation and work patterns, and some do both. This report identifies ni

12 March 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on aspects of individual employment relations in the EU during the first quarter of 2014. The terms and conditions of employment, entitlements and obligations and aspects related to the termination of the employment

18 February 2015

In recent years, practices such as outsourcing and contracting-out have increasingly blurred the boundaries between dependent employment and self-employment. A new group of workers has emerged, which comprises workers who are formally ‘self-employed’, but present some characteristics of employees

29 September 2013

Non-standard employment and, more particularly, part-time work has been increasing worldwide for the past two decades. This trend has been especially strong in Europe, where the issue of different working time arrangements is an important part of the discussion among policymakers and social partners

27 October 2011

This report reviews the present situation regarding the use of temporary agency work (TAW) in European Union Member States. It examines arrangements for social dialogue and collective bargaining at national level across the EU. It examines the role of collective bargaining in determining such

09 January 2011

ProAct is a £48 million programme launched by the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG) in response to the economic crisis. Through social partner engagement, the Welsh Assembly Government developed and implemented the ProAct initiative in a matter of two to three months with the aim of helping businesses

11 November 2010

This background paper has been prepared to complement the findings of a comparative analysis by Eurofound on what has been termed ‘very atypical work’ in the 27 EU Member States. In the background paper, the definition of very atypical forms of work includes non-written employment contracts

13 April 2010

This report reveals how widespread part-time employment has become as a working arrangement in many parts of Europe. It looks at the national policies influencing part-time employment and the possible impact of this type of work organisation on labour market flexibility. It also examines the

17 June 2008

In the context of global competition, it is increasingly relevant to look at Europe’s economic development in a wider perspective. This report gives an overview of the main industrial relations developments in the European Union, Japan and the US in 2005 and 2006. It charts the similarities and

11 December 2007

Online resources results (249)

Commission adopts draft Directive to implement fixed-term contract agreement

The use of fixed-term contract work has increased substantially over the past few years and it is estimated by the European Commission that approximately 12.2% of the working population of the EU are employed on such employment contracts. There has been a concern in the Commission and particularly

Research examines attitudes and behaviour on labour flexibility

In April and May 1999, two research studies were published on the attitudes of Italians, especially young people, towards labour flexibility. The studies indicate that there is widespread willingness to accept forms of "non-standard" and flexible work. The results can usefully be compared with the

Problems mark implementation of Dutch Flexibility and Security Act

Approximately 80,000 employees with a flexible employment contract have benefited from the Flexibility and Security Act, which took effect in the Netherlands on 1 January 1999, with the intention of improving job security. However, a survey published in April 1999 has also revealed negative

Government intends to reform law on temporary employment agencies

The Spanish government announced in April 1999 that it intends to reform the law on temporary employment agencies before the end of its term of office. Trade unions have for some time been calling for legal changes to improve the working conditions of agency employees, but the resistance of the

Relay part-time scheme to be implemented

Legislation expected to be adopted in Italy in May 1999 would put into effect a so-called "relay part-time" scheme, which has been the subject of growing debate in recent months. This system involves workers approaching retirement switching to part-time work, with young people recruited part-time to

Employment Relations Bill published

The long-awaited Employment Relations Bill [1] was published on 28 January 1999 and has begun its passage through Parliament. The Bill will implement the package of individual, collective and "family-friendly" employment rights set out in the Labour government's/Fairness at work/ white paper issued

Social partners reach draft framework agreement on fixed-term contracts

On 14 January 1999, the Union of Industrial and Employers' Confederations of Europe (UNICE), the European Centre of Enterprises with Public Participation and of Enterprises of General Economic Interest (CEEP) and the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) reached a draft framework agreement on

Flexicurity Act makes major changes to labour law

From 1 January 1999, the date on which the Flexibility and Security Act came into force, several areas of Dutch labour law have begun to look quite different. There has already been a degree of controversy about some of the potential effects, such as the cost of terminating an employment contract

Temporary agency work: from suspicion to general acceptance

Over the past 10 years, Luxembourg's trade unions have run an orchestrated campaign against temporary agency work, taking a very negative view of the phenomenon. However, by late 1998, four years after it was passed, 1994 legislation on temporary agency work has made this type of employment appear

Agreement between government and unions on part-time contracts

On 13 November 1998, the Spanish government and the CC.OO and UGT trade union confederations signed an agreement on part-time employment contracts which seeks to improve the conditions of part-time workers and to provide them with social security benefits pro rata to the number of hours worked. The


Blogs results (7)
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Standard employment is not simply being replaced by non-standard work; employment is becoming more diverse, and policy must accordingly become more tailored. The last decade has seen much public and policy debate on the future of work. Standard employment – permanent, full-time and subject to labour

15 december 2020
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Up to the start of 2020, recent EU economic and labour market trends were often discussed in terms of the periods before and after the Great Recession. It now appears likely that, in the short- to medium-term, the repercussions of that economic crisis will be dwarfed by the unfolding impact of the C

21 april 2020
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Imagine you’re at work and something happens: you have to leave to visit a client, you have to go home to let in the plumber, or you have to collect the kids from school as the football training has just been cancelled. If you’re lucky, your employer gives you the flexibility to do this. If you’re e

14 maj 2019
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Research Manager Isabella Biletta looks at fraudulent practices in the contracting of work. Such practices involve the abuse of legitimate employment relationships with the aim of sidestepping labour and social regulations and with the effect of undermining workers’ rights and fair competition in

1 juni 2018
The many faces of self-employment In Europe

While the Europe 2020 strategy actively promotes entrepreneurial self-employment as a means to create good jobs, policy makers at national and EU level are actively looking at better social protection for self-employed workers. Understanding this paradox requires looking beyond the ‘self-employed’ l

26 oktober 2017
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The EU has finally recovered all the net employment losses sustained since the global financial crisis. It has been a long and painful process. But there is at last growing evidence of positive momentum in EU labour markets, if not quite ‘animal spirits’. Many of those member states most affected by

26 juli 2017
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More than one in 10 employees in the EU are employed on temporary contracts, but a majority of them would prefer a permanent contract. Temporary contracts help employers to manage their labour demand, but there are downsides for employees, such as job insecurity and lower pay.

19 februar 2016
Data results (1)

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